If you have been reading about Research chemical and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-04-17. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
GW501516 acts on PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis. In animal studies, activation of this receptor was associated with increased endurance and changes in lipid metabolism. Human trials examined effects on blood lipids and other metabolic markers, but the compound did not advance to approval. Rodent studies later reported tumors in multiple tissues at doses used in those experiments. Whether those findings translate to human risk remains uncertain, and the clinical relevance of the animal data is still debated.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516, GW-501516, GW 501516, endurobol | Names vary in research and anti-doping documents. |
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Small-molecule nuclear receptor ligand. |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Identifier commonly associated with GW501516. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical for purified research material. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Organic solvents are common for laboratory stock solutions. |
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
=== Transmission === Once a significant enantiomeric enrichment has been produced in a single biomolecule or biological class of molecules in a system, the transference of chirality through the entire system is possible. This last step is known as the chiral transmission or propagation step. Independently achieving homochirality in every biomolecule (e.g., creating significant enantiomeric enrichment or complete homochirality for all 19 chiral amino acids separately) would be statistically improbable for compounds with different physical and chemical properties and has not yet been experimentally demonstrated. Stereoselective pressure from one biomolecule or biological class to others would eliminate the need to supply all prebiotically-relevant biological precursors in their enantiopure form. Some proposed models for the transmission of chiral asymmetry are polymerization, epimerization or copolymerization. Experimental work has demonstrated that enantiomerically enriched amino acids could assert chiral pressure on sugars and RNA precursors, and vice versa. For example, laboratory experiments demonstrated enantioenrichment of the 3-carbon sugar D-glyceraldehyde from a racemic solution via the interaction of L-proline-valine dipeptide. Furthermore, the stereoselective preference of D-aminoacyl-RNA for L-amino acids in nonenzymatic aminoacylation reactions provide a prebiotically plausible mechanism of chiral information transfer.
Grover CN, Cameron RE, Best SM: Investigating the morphological, mechanical and degradation properties of scaffolds comprising collagen, gelatin and elastin for use in soft tissue engineering. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2012 Jun;10:62-74.
=== Legal status === In the United States, benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act, even when not on the market (for example, flunitrazepam), with the exception of flualprazolam, etizolam, clonazolam, flubromazolam, and diclazepam which are placed in Schedule I. In Canada, possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use. All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. In the United Kingdom, benzodiazepines are Class C controlled drugs, carrying the maximum penalty of 7 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine, or both for possession and a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine, or both for supplying benzodiazepines to others. In the Netherlands, since October 1993, benzodiazepines, including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam, are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law. A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines. Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1, thus requiring doctors to write prescriptions in the List 1 format. In East Asia and Southeast Asia, temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted. In certain countries, triazolam, flunitrazepam, flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees. In Hong Kong, all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. Previously only brotizolam, flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs.
Pregnancy: MMR vaccine and its components should not be given to pregnant women. Women of childbearing age should check with their doctor about getting vaccinated prior to getting pregnant. HIV-infected children, who may receive measles vaccines if their CD4+ lymphocyte count is greater than 15%. Weakened immune system due to HIV/AIDS or certain medical treatments Having a parent or sibling with a history of immune problems Condition that makes a patient bruise or bleed easily Recent transfusion of blood or blood products Tuberculosis Receiving other vaccines in the past 4 weeks Moderate or severe illness. However, mild illness (e.g., common cold) is usually not contraindicated.
In order to decipher this biological mystery, Nirenberg and Matthaei needed a cell-free system that would build amino acids into proteins. Following the work of Alfred Tissières and after a few failed attempts, they created a stable system by rupturing E. coli bacteria cells and releasing the contents of the cytoplasm. This allowed them to synthesize protein, but only when the correct kind of RNA was added, allowing Nirenberg and Matthaei to control the experiment. They created synthetic RNA molecules outside the bacterium and introduced this RNA to the E. coli system. The experiments used mixtures with all 20 amino acids. For each individual experiment, 19 amino acids were "cold" (nonradioactive), and one was "hot" (radioactively tagged with 14C so they could detect the tagged amino acid later). They varied the "hot" amino acid in each round of the experiment, seeking to determine which amino acids would be incorporated into a protein following the addition of a particular type of synthetic RNA. The key first experiments were done with poly-U (synthetic RNA composed only of uridine bases, provided by Leon A. Heppel and Maxine Singer). At 3 am on May 27, 1961, Matthaei used phenylalanine as the "hot" amino acid. After an hour, the control tube (no poly-U) showed a background level of 70 counts, whereas the tube with poly-U added showed 38,000 counts per milligram of protein.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In principle, mandating countries were only supposed to hold these former colonies "in trust" for their inhabitants, until they were sufficiently prepared for their own self-determination. Under these terms, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand were granted the German Pacific islands, and the Union of South Africa received South West Africa. It soon became apparent the South African government had interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation. In September 1922, South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts testified before the League of Nations Mandate Commission that South West Africa was being fully incorporated into the Union and should be regarded, for all practical purposes, as a fifth province of South Africa. According to Smuts, this constituted "annexation in all but in name". Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the League of Nations complained that of all the mandatory powers South Africa was the most delinquent with regards to observing the terms of its mandate. The Mandate Commission vetoed a number of ambitious South African policy decisions, such as proposals to nationalise South West African railways or alter the preexisting borders. Sharp criticism was also leveled at South Africa's disproportionate spending on the local white population, which the former defended as obligatory since white South West Africans were taxed the heaviest.
mismatch Also mispairing. An incorrect pairing of nucleobases on complementary strands of DNA or RNA; i.e. the presence in one strand of a duplex molecule of a base that is not complementary (by Watson–Crick pairing rules) to the base occupying the corresponding position in the other strand, which prevents normal hydrogen bonding between the bases. For example, a guanine paired with a thymine would be a mismatch, as guanine normally pairs with cytosine.
==== Quantification ==== Polyphenolic content in vitro can be quantified by volumetric titration. An oxidizing agent, permanganate, is used to oxidize known concentrations of a standard tannin solution, producing a standard curve. The tannin content of the unknown is then expressed as equivalents of the appropriate hydrolyzable or condensed tannin. Some methods for quantification of total polyphenol content in vitro are based on colorimetric measurements. Some tests are relatively specific to polyphenols (for instance the Porter's assay). Total phenols (or antioxidant effect) can be measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu reaction. Results are typically expressed as gallic acid equivalents. Polyphenols are seldom evaluated by antibody technologies. Other tests measure the antioxidant capacity of a fraction. Some make use of the ABTS radical cation which is reactive towards most antioxidants including phenolics, thiols and vitamin C. During this reaction, the blue ABTS radical cation is converted back to its colorless neutral form. The reaction may be monitored spectrophotometrically. This assay is often referred to as the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. The reactivity of the various antioxidants tested are compared to that of Trolox, which is a vitamin E analog. Other antioxidant capacity assays which use Trolox as a standard include the diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assays or inhibition of copper-catalyzed in vitro human low-density lipoprotein oxidation.
== History == The discovery and characterization of aminopeptidases date back to the early 20th century. The term "aminopeptidase" was first introduced in 1929 by Linderstrøm-Lang and Sato in order to describe enzymes that cleave amino acids from the N-terminus of peptides. In the 1950s and 1960s, the discovery of leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) and aminopeptidase N (APN) marked important milestones in the field. LAP was found to be crucial for protein digestion, while APN was recognized for its role in the regulation of peptide-mediated effects. These discoveries were pivotal in understanding the physiological functions of aminopeptidases and their involvement in health and disease. The subsequent decades saw extensive research into the structure, function, and mechanisms of action of various aminopeptidases. For example, the M1 family of aminopeptidases, which includes puromycin-sensitive aminopeptidase (PSA), was characterized by conserved zinc-dependent sites and exopeptidase motifs. The study of PSA in different model organisms revealed its essential roles in growth and behavior. Mutations in orthologs of PSA in different species were linked to errors in meiosis and reduced viability of embryos. Aminopeptidase N, also known as AP-N or CD13, was extensively characterized for its broad substrate specificity (ability to bind to its targets) and its presence in various tissues such as the brush border membranes of the kidney, small intestine, and placenta.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Applications == BSCCO superconductors already have large-scale applications. For example, tens of kilometers of BSCCO-2223 at 77 K superconducting wires are being used in the current leads of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN (but the main field coils are using metallic lower temperature superconductors, mainly based on niobium–tin).
Numerous health benefits have been claimed to correlate with drinking kombucha; there is little evidence to support any of these claims. The beverage has caused rare serious adverse effects, possibly arising from contamination during home preparation. It is not recommended for therapeutic purposes.
=== June 2004 === The Pentagon confirms a report in The New York Times that CIA chief George Tenet was allowed by U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to have an Iraqi prisoner secretly detained at Camp Cropper in November, preventing the International Committee of the Red Cross from monitoring their treatment, a possible violation of the Geneva Conventions. June 29: Oregon national guardsmen intervene in the beating of bound prisoners on the grounds of the Iraqi Interior Ministry; are told to back off and let the newly "sovereign" Iraqis run their own affairs.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.
No. Cardarine is not a steroid hormone; it targets the nuclear receptor PPARδ. Its classification in anti-doping rules differs from anabolic steroids, though it remains prohibited in sport.
Early rodent studies reported tumor formation at multiple sites, which raised safety concerns. Sponsors stopped clinical development, and no approved human product exists.
No. Cardarine is a PPARδ agonist, while selective androgen receptor modulators act on androgen receptors. The two classes differ in receptor target and downstream effects.